mirror of
https://github.com/ethereum/solidity
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526 lines
20 KiB
ReStructuredText
526 lines
20 KiB
ReStructuredText
.. index:: ! type;reference, ! reference type, storage, memory, location, array, struct
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.. _reference-types:
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Reference Types
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===============
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Values of reference type can be modified through multiple different names.
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Contrast this with value types where you get an independent copy whenever
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a variable of value type is used. Because of that, reference types have to be handled
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more carefully than value types. Currently, reference types comprise structs,
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arrays and mappings. If you use a reference type, you always have to explicitly
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provide the data area where the type is stored: ``memory`` (whose lifetime is limited
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to an external function call), ``storage`` (the location where the state variables
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are stored, where the lifetime is limited to the lifetime of a contract)
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or ``calldata`` (special data location that contains the function arguments,
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only available for external function call parameters).
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An assignment or type conversion that changes the data location will always incur an automatic copy operation,
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while assignments inside the same data location only copy in some cases for storage types.
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.. _data-location:
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Data location
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-------------
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Every reference type has an additional
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annotation, the "data location", about where it is stored. There are three data locations:
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``memory``, ``storage`` and ``calldata``. Calldata is only valid for parameters of external contract
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functions and is required for this type of parameter. Calldata is a non-modifiable,
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non-persistent area where function arguments are stored, and behaves mostly like memory.
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.. note::
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Prior to version 0.5.0 the data location could be omitted, and would default to different locations
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depending on the kind of variable, function type, etc., but all complex types must now give an explicit
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data location.
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.. _data-location-assignment:
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Data location and assignment behaviour
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Data locations are not only relevant for persistency of data, but also for the semantics of assignments:
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* Assignments between ``storage`` and ``memory`` (or from ``calldata``)
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always create an independent copy.
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* Assignments from ``memory`` to ``memory`` only create references. This means
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that changes to one memory variable are also visible in all other memory
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variables that refer to the same data.
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* Assignments from ``storage`` to a **local** storage variable also only
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assign a reference.
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* All other assignments to ``storage`` always copy. Examples for this
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case are assignments to state variables or to members of local
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variables of storage struct type, even if the local variable
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itself is just a reference.
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.5.0 <0.7.0;
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contract C {
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// The data location of x is storage.
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// This is the only place where the
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// data location can be omitted.
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uint[] x;
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// The data location of memoryArray is memory.
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function f(uint[] memory memoryArray) public {
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x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage
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uint[] storage y = x; // works, assigns a pointer, data location of y is storage
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y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element
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y.pop(); // fine, modifies x through y
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delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y
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// The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary /
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// unnamed array in storage, but storage is "statically" allocated:
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// y = memoryArray;
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// This does not work either, since it would "reset" the pointer, but there
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// is no sensible location it could point to.
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// delete y;
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g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x
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h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary copy in memory
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}
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function g(uint[] storage) internal pure {}
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function h(uint[] memory) public pure {}
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}
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.. index:: ! array
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.. _arrays:
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Arrays
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------
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Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size.
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The type of an array of fixed size ``k`` and element type ``T`` is written as ``T[k]``,
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and an array of dynamic size as ``T[]``.
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For example, an array of 5 dynamic arrays of ``uint`` is written as
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``uint[][5]``. The notation is reversed compared to some other languages. In
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Solidity, ``X[3]`` is always an array containing three elements of type ``X``,
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even if ``X`` is itself an array. This is not the case in other languages such
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as C.
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Indices are zero-based, and access is in the opposite direction of the
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declaration.
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For example, if you have a variable ``uint[][5] memory x``, you access the
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second ``uint`` in the third dynamic array using ``x[2][1]``, and to access the
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third dynamic array, use ``x[2]``. Again,
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if you have an array ``T[5] a`` for a type ``T`` that can also be an array,
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then ``a[2]`` always has type ``T``.
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Array elements can be of any type, including mapping or struct. The general
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restrictions for types apply, in that mappings can only be stored in the
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``storage`` data location and publicly-visible functions need parameters that are :ref:`ABI types <ABI>`.
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It is possible to mark state variable arrays ``public`` and have Solidity create a :ref:`getter <visibility-and-getters>`.
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The numeric index becomes a required parameter for the getter.
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Accessing an array past its end causes a failing assertion. Methods ``.push()`` and ``.push(value)`` can be used
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to append a new element at the end of the array, where ``.push()`` appends a zero-initialized element and returns
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a reference to it.
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.. index:: ! string, ! bytes
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.. _strings:
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.. _bytes:
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``bytes`` and ``strings`` as Arrays
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Variables of type ``bytes`` and ``string`` are special arrays. A ``bytes`` is similar to ``byte[]``,
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but it is packed tightly in calldata and memory. ``string`` is equal to ``bytes`` but does not allow
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length or index access.
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Solidity does not have string manipulation functions, but there are
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third-party string libraries. You can also compare two strings by their keccak256-hash using
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``keccak256(abi.encodePacked(s1)) == keccak256(abi.encodePacked(s2))`` and
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concatenate two strings using ``abi.encodePacked(s1, s2)``.
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You should use ``bytes`` over ``byte[]`` because it is cheaper,
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since ``byte[]`` adds 31 padding bytes between the elements. As a general rule,
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use ``bytes`` for arbitrary-length raw byte data and ``string`` for arbitrary-length
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string (UTF-8) data. If you can limit the length to a certain number of bytes,
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always use one of the value types ``bytes1`` to ``bytes32`` because they are much cheaper.
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.. note::
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If you want to access the byte-representation of a string ``s``, use
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``bytes(s).length`` / ``bytes(s)[7] = 'x';``. Keep in mind
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that you are accessing the low-level bytes of the UTF-8 representation,
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and not the individual characters.
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.. index:: ! array;allocating, new
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Allocating Memory Arrays
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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Memory arrays with dynamic length can be created using the ``new`` operator.
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As opposed to storage arrays, it is **not** possible to resize memory arrays (e.g.
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the ``.push`` member functions are not available).
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You either have to calculate the required size in advance
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or create a new memory array and copy every element.
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.7.0;
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contract C {
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function f(uint len) public pure {
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uint[] memory a = new uint[](7);
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bytes memory b = new bytes(len);
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assert(a.length == 7);
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assert(b.length == len);
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a[6] = 8;
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}
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}
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.. index:: ! array;literals, ! inline;arrays
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Array Literals
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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An array literal is a comma-separated list of one or more expressions, enclosed
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in square brackets (``[...]``). For example ``[1, a, f(3)]``. There must be a
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common type all elements can be implicitly converted to. This is the elementary
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type of the array.
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Array literals are always statically-sized memory arrays.
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In the example below, the type of ``[1, 2, 3]`` is
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``uint8[3] memory``. Because the type of each of these constants is ``uint8``, if
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you want the result to be a ``uint[3] memory`` type, you need to convert
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the first element to ``uint``.
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.7.0;
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contract C {
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function f() public pure {
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g([uint(1), 2, 3]);
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}
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function g(uint[3] memory) public pure {
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// ...
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}
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}
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Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized
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memory arrays, i.e. the following is not possible:
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.7.0;
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// This will not compile.
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contract C {
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function f() public {
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// The next line creates a type error because uint[3] memory
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// cannot be converted to uint[] memory.
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uint[] memory x = [uint(1), 3, 4];
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}
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}
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It is planned to remove this restriction in the future, but it creates some
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complications because of how arrays are passed in the ABI.
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.. index:: ! array;length, length, push, pop, !array;push, !array;pop
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.. _array-members:
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Array Members
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^
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**length**:
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Arrays have a ``length`` member that contains their number of elements.
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The length of memory arrays is fixed (but dynamic, i.e. it can depend on
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runtime parameters) once they are created.
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**push()**:
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Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function
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called ``push()`` that you can use to append a zero-initialised element at the end of the array.
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It returns a reference to the element, so that it can be used like
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``x.push().t = 2`` or ``x.push() = b``.
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**push(x)**:
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Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function
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called ``push(x)`` that you can use to append a given element at the end of the array.
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The function returns nothing.
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**pop**:
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Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member
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function called ``pop`` that you can use to remove an element from the
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end of the array. This also implicitly calls :ref:`delete<delete>` on the removed element.
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.. note::
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Increasing the length of a storage array by calling ``push()``
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has constant gas costs because storage is zero-initialised,
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while decreasing the length by calling ``pop()`` has a
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cost that depends on the "size" of the element being removed.
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If that element is an array, it can be very costly, because
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it includes explicitly clearing the removed
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elements similar to calling :ref:`delete<delete>` on them.
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.. note::
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To use arrays of arrays in external (instead of public) functions, you need to
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activate ABIEncoderV2.
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.. note::
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In EVM versions before Byzantium, it was not possible to access
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dynamic arrays return from function calls. If you call functions
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that return dynamic arrays, make sure to use an EVM that is set to
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Byzantium mode.
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.6.0 <0.7.0;
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contract ArrayContract {
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uint[2**20] m_aLotOfIntegers;
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// Note that the following is not a pair of dynamic arrays but a
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// dynamic array of pairs (i.e. of fixed size arrays of length two).
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// Because of that, T[] is always a dynamic array of T, even if T
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// itself is an array.
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// Data location for all state variables is storage.
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bool[2][] m_pairsOfFlags;
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// newPairs is stored in memory - the only possibility
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// for public contract function arguments
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function setAllFlagPairs(bool[2][] memory newPairs) public {
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// assignment to a storage array performs a copy of ``newPairs`` and
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// replaces the complete array ``m_pairsOfFlags``.
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m_pairsOfFlags = newPairs;
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}
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struct StructType {
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uint[] contents;
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uint moreInfo;
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}
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StructType s;
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function f(uint[] memory c) public {
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// stores a reference to ``s`` in ``g``
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StructType storage g = s;
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// also changes ``s.moreInfo``.
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g.moreInfo = 2;
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// assigns a copy because ``g.contents``
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// is not a local variable, but a member of
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// a local variable.
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g.contents = c;
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}
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function setFlagPair(uint index, bool flagA, bool flagB) public {
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// access to a non-existing index will throw an exception
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m_pairsOfFlags[index][0] = flagA;
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m_pairsOfFlags[index][1] = flagB;
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}
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function changeFlagArraySize(uint newSize) public {
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// using push and pop is the only way to change the
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// length of an array
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if (newSize < m_pairsOfFlags.length) {
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while (m_pairsOfFlags.length > newSize)
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m_pairsOfFlags.pop();
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} else if (newSize > m_pairsOfFlags.length) {
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while (m_pairsOfFlags.length < newSize)
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m_pairsOfFlags.push();
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}
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}
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function clear() public {
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// these clear the arrays completely
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delete m_pairsOfFlags;
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delete m_aLotOfIntegers;
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// identical effect here
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m_pairsOfFlags = new bool[2][](0);
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}
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bytes m_byteData;
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function byteArrays(bytes memory data) public {
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// byte arrays ("bytes") are different as they are stored without padding,
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// but can be treated identical to "uint8[]"
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m_byteData = data;
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for (uint i = 0; i < 7; i++)
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m_byteData.push();
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m_byteData[3] = 0x08;
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delete m_byteData[2];
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}
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function addFlag(bool[2] memory flag) public returns (uint) {
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m_pairsOfFlags.push(flag);
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return m_pairsOfFlags.length;
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}
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function createMemoryArray(uint size) public pure returns (bytes memory) {
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// Dynamic memory arrays are created using `new`:
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uint[2][] memory arrayOfPairs = new uint[2][](size);
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// Inline arrays are always statically-sized and if you only
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// use literals, you have to provide at least one type.
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arrayOfPairs[0] = [uint(1), 2];
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// Create a dynamic byte array:
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bytes memory b = new bytes(200);
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for (uint i = 0; i < b.length; i++)
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b[i] = byte(uint8(i));
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return b;
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}
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}
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.. index:: ! array;slice
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.. _array-slices:
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Array Slices
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------------
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Array slices are a view on a contiguous portion of an array.
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They are written as ``x[start:end]``, where ``start`` and
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``end`` are expressions resulting in a uint256 type (or
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implicitly convertible to it). The first element of the
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slice is ``x[start]`` and the last element is ``x[end - 1]``.
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If ``start`` is greater than ``end`` or if ``end`` is greater
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than the length of the array, an exception is thrown.
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Both ``start`` and ``end`` are optional: ``start`` defaults
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to ``0`` and ``end`` defaults to the length of the array.
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Array slices do not have any members. They are implicitly
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convertible to arrays of their underlying type
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and support index access. Index access is not absolute
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in the underlying array, but relative to the start of
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the slice.
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Array slices do not have a type name which means
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no variable can have an array slices as type,
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they only exist in intermediate expressions.
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.. note::
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As of now, array slices are only implemented for calldata arrays.
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Array slices are useful to ABI-decode secondary data passed in function parameters:
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.6.0 <0.7.0;
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contract Proxy {
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/// @dev Address of the client contract managed by proxy i.e., this contract
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address client;
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constructor(address _client) public {
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client = _client;
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}
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/// Forward call to "setOwner(address)" that is implemented by client
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/// after doing basic validation on the address argument.
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function forward(bytes calldata _payload) external {
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bytes4 sig = abi.decode(_payload[:4], (bytes4));
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if (sig == bytes4(keccak256("setOwner(address)"))) {
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address owner = abi.decode(_payload[4:], (address));
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require(owner != address(0), "Address of owner cannot be zero.");
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}
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(bool status,) = client.delegatecall(_payload);
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require(status, "Forwarded call failed.");
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}
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}
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.. index:: ! struct, ! type;struct
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.. _structs:
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Structs
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-------
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Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs, which is
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shown in the following example:
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::
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// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-3.0
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pragma solidity >=0.6.0 <0.7.0;
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// Defines a new type with two fields.
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// Declaring a struct outside of a contract allows
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// it to be shared by multiple contracts.
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// Here, this is not really needed.
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struct Funder {
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address addr;
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uint amount;
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}
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contract CrowdFunding {
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// Structs can also be defined inside contracts, which makes them
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// visible only there and in derived contracts.
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struct Campaign {
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address payable beneficiary;
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uint fundingGoal;
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uint numFunders;
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uint amount;
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mapping (uint => Funder) funders;
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}
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uint numCampaigns;
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mapping (uint => Campaign) campaigns;
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function newCampaign(address payable beneficiary, uint goal) public returns (uint campaignID) {
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campaignID = numCampaigns++; // campaignID is return variable
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// Creates new struct in memory and copies it to storage.
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// We leave out the mapping type, because it is not valid in memory.
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// If structs are copied (even from storage to storage),
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// types that are not valid outside of storage (ex. mappings and array of mappings)
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// are always omitted, because they cannot be enumerated.
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campaigns[campaignID] = Campaign(beneficiary, goal, 0, 0);
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}
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function contribute(uint campaignID) public payable {
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Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
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// Creates a new temporary memory struct, initialised with the given values
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// and copies it over to storage.
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// Note that you can also use Funder(msg.sender, msg.value) to initialise.
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c.funders[c.numFunders++] = Funder({addr: msg.sender, amount: msg.value});
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c.amount += msg.value;
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}
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function checkGoalReached(uint campaignID) public returns (bool reached) {
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Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
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if (c.amount < c.fundingGoal)
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return false;
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uint amount = c.amount;
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c.amount = 0;
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c.beneficiary.transfer(amount);
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return true;
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}
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}
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The contract does not provide the full functionality of a crowdfunding
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contract, but it contains the basic concepts necessary to understand structs.
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Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays and they can themselves
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contain mappings and arrays.
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It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type,
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although the struct itself can be the value type of a mapping member
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or it can contain a dynamically-sized array of its type.
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This restriction is necessary, as the size of the struct has to be finite.
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Note how in all the functions, a struct type is assigned to a local variable
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with data location ``storage``.
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This does not copy the struct but only stores a reference so that assignments to
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members of the local variable actually write to the state.
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Of course, you can also directly access the members of the struct without
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assigning it to a local variable, as in
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``campaigns[campaignID].amount = 0``.
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