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.. include:: contracts/function-modifiers.rst .. include:: contracts/function-modifiers.rst
.. include:: contracts/constant-state-variables.rst .. include:: contracts/constant-state-variables.rst
.. include:: contracts/functions.rst
.. index:: ! functions
.. _functions:
*********
Functions
*********
.. _function-parameters-return-variables:
Function Parameters and Return Variables
========================================
As in JavaScript, functions may take parameters as input. Unlike in JavaScript
and C, functions may also return an arbitrary number of values as output.
Function Parameters
-------------------
Function parameters are declared the same way as variables, and the name of
unused parameters can be omitted.
For example, if you want your contract to accept one kind of external call
with two integers, you would use something like::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
uint sum;
function taker(uint _a, uint _b) public {
sum = _a + _b;
}
}
Function parameters can be used as any other local variable and they can also be assigned to.
.. note::
An :ref:`external function<external-function-calls>` cannot accept a
multi-dimensional array as an input
parameter. This functionality is possible if you enable the new
experimental ``ABIEncoderV2`` feature by adding ``pragma experimental ABIEncoderV2;`` to your source file.
An :ref:`internal function<external-function-calls>` can accept a
multi-dimensional array without enabling the feature.
.. index:: return array, return string, array, string, array of strings, dynamic array, variably sized array, return struct, struct
Return Variables
----------------
Function return variables are declared with the same syntax after the
``returns`` keyword.
For example, suppose you want to return two results: the sum and the product of
two integers passed as function parameters, then you use something like::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
function arithmetic(uint _a, uint _b)
public
pure
returns (uint o_sum, uint o_product)
{
o_sum = _a + _b;
o_product = _a * _b;
}
}
The names of return variables can be omitted.
Return variables can be used as any other local variable and they
are initialized with their :ref:`default value <default-value>` and have that value unless explicitly set.
You can either explicitly assign to return variables and
then leave the function using ``return;``,
or you can provide return values
(either a single or :ref:`multiple ones<multi-return>`) directly with the ``return``
statement::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
function arithmetic(uint _a, uint _b)
public
pure
returns (uint o_sum, uint o_product)
{
return (_a + _b, _a * _b);
}
}
This form is equivalent to first assigning values to the
return variables and then using ``return;`` to leave the function.
.. note::
You cannot return some types from non-internal functions, notably
multi-dimensional dynamic arrays and structs. If you enable the
new experimental ``ABIEncoderV2`` feature by adding ``pragma experimental
ABIEncoderV2;`` to your source file then more types are available, but
``mapping`` types are still limited to inside a single contract and you
cannot transfer them.
.. _multi-return:
Returning Multiple Values
-------------------------
When a function has multiple return types, the statement ``return (v0, v1, ..., vn)`` can be used to return multiple values.
The number of components must be the same as the number of return types.
.. index:: ! view function, function;view
.. _view-functions:
View Functions
==============
Functions can be declared ``view`` in which case they promise not to modify the state.
.. note::
If the compiler's EVM target is Byzantium or newer (default) the opcode
``STATICCALL`` is used for ``view`` functions which enforces the state
to stay unmodified as part of the EVM execution. For library ``view`` functions
``DELEGATECALL`` is used, because there is no combined ``DELEGATECALL`` and ``STATICCALL``.
This means library ``view`` functions do not have run-time checks that prevent state
modifications. This should not impact security negatively because library code is
usually known at compile-time and the static checker performs compile-time checks.
The following statements are considered modifying the state:
#. Writing to state variables.
#. :ref:`Emitting events <events>`.
#. :ref:`Creating other contracts <creating-contracts>`.
#. Using ``selfdestruct``.
#. Sending Ether via calls.
#. Calling any function not marked ``view`` or ``pure``.
#. Using low-level calls.
#. Using inline assembly that contains certain opcodes.
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract C {
function f(uint a, uint b) public view returns (uint) {
return a * (b + 42) + now;
}
}
.. note::
``constant`` on functions used to be an alias to ``view``, but this was dropped in version 0.5.0.
.. note::
Getter methods are automatically marked ``view``.
.. note::
Prior to version 0.5.0, the compiler did not use the ``STATICCALL`` opcode
for ``view`` functions.
This enabled state modifications in ``view`` functions through the use of
invalid explicit type conversions.
By using ``STATICCALL`` for ``view`` functions, modifications to the
state are prevented on the level of the EVM.
.. index:: ! pure function, function;pure
.. _pure-functions:
Pure Functions
==============
Functions can be declared ``pure`` in which case they promise not to read from or modify the state.
.. note::
If the compiler's EVM target is Byzantium or newer (default) the opcode ``STATICCALL`` is used,
which does not guarantee that the state is not read, but at least that it is not modified.
In addition to the list of state modifying statements explained above, the following are considered reading from the state:
#. Reading from state variables.
#. Accessing ``address(this).balance`` or ``<address>.balance``.
#. Accessing any of the members of ``block``, ``tx``, ``msg`` (with the exception of ``msg.sig`` and ``msg.data``).
#. Calling any function not marked ``pure``.
#. Using inline assembly that contains certain opcodes.
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract C {
function f(uint a, uint b) public pure returns (uint) {
return a * (b + 42);
}
}
Pure functions are able to use the `revert()` and `require()` functions to revert
potential state changes when an :ref:`error occurs <assert-and-require>`.
Reverting a state change is not considered a "state modification", as only changes to the
state made previously in code that did not have the ``view`` or ``pure`` restriction
are reverted and that code has the option to catch the ``revert`` and not pass it on.
This behaviour is also in line with the ``STATICCALL`` opcode.
.. warning::
It is not possible to prevent functions from reading the state at the level
of the EVM, it is only possible to prevent them from writing to the state
(i.e. only ``view`` can be enforced at the EVM level, ``pure`` can not).
.. note::
Prior to version 0.5.0, the compiler did not use the ``STATICCALL`` opcode
for ``pure`` functions.
This enabled state modifications in ``pure`` functions through the use of
invalid explicit type conversions.
By using ``STATICCALL`` for ``pure`` functions, modifications to the
state are prevented on the level of the EVM.
.. note::
Prior to version 0.4.17 the compiler did not enforce that ``pure`` is not reading the state.
It is a compile-time type check, which can be circumvented doing invalid explicit conversions
between contract types, because the compiler can verify that the type of the contract does
not do state-changing operations, but it cannot check that the contract that will be called
at runtime is actually of that type.
.. index:: ! fallback function, function;fallback
.. _fallback-function:
Fallback Function
=================
A contract can have exactly one unnamed function. This function cannot have
arguments, cannot return anything and has to have ``external`` visibility.
It is executed on a call to the contract if none of the other
functions match the given function identifier (or if no data was supplied at
all).
Furthermore, this function is executed whenever the contract receives plain
Ether (without data). Additionally, in order to receive Ether, the fallback function
must be marked ``payable``. If no such function exists, the contract cannot receive
Ether through regular transactions.
In the worst case, the fallback function can only rely on 2300 gas being
available (for example when `send` or `transfer` is used), leaving little
room to perform other operations except basic logging. The following operations
will consume more gas than the 2300 gas stipend:
- Writing to storage
- Creating a contract
- Calling an external function which consumes a large amount of gas
- Sending Ether
Like any function, the fallback function can execute complex operations as long as there is enough gas passed on to it.
.. note::
Even though the fallback function cannot have arguments, one can still use ``msg.data`` to retrieve
any payload supplied with the call.
.. warning::
The fallback function is also executed if the caller meant to call
a function that is not available. If you want to implement the fallback
function only to receive ether, you should add a check
like ``require(msg.data.length == 0)`` to prevent invalid calls.
.. warning::
Contracts that receive Ether directly (without a function call, i.e. using ``send`` or ``transfer``)
but do not define a fallback function
throw an exception, sending back the Ether (this was different
before Solidity v0.4.0). So if you want your contract to receive Ether,
you have to implement a payable fallback function.
.. warning::
A contract without a payable fallback function can receive Ether as a recipient of a `coinbase transaction` (aka `miner block reward`)
or as a destination of a ``selfdestruct``.
A contract cannot react to such Ether transfers and thus also cannot reject them. This is a design choice of the EVM and Solidity cannot work around it.
It also means that ``address(this).balance`` can be higher than the sum of some manual accounting implemented in a contract (i.e. having a counter updated in the fallback function).
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract Test {
// This function is called for all messages sent to
// this contract (there is no other function).
// Sending Ether to this contract will cause an exception,
// because the fallback function does not have the `payable`
// modifier.
function() external { x = 1; }
uint x;
}
// This contract keeps all Ether sent to it with no way
// to get it back.
contract Sink {
function() external payable { }
}
contract Caller {
function callTest(Test test) public returns (bool) {
(bool success,) = address(test).call(abi.encodeWithSignature("nonExistingFunction()"));
require(success);
// results in test.x becoming == 1.
// address(test) will not allow to call ``send`` directly, since ``test`` has no payable
// fallback function. It has to be converted to the ``address payable`` type via an
// intermediate conversion to ``uint160`` to even allow calling ``send`` on it.
address payable testPayable = address(uint160(address(test)));
// If someone sends ether to that contract,
// the transfer will fail, i.e. this returns false here.
return testPayable.send(2 ether);
}
}
.. index:: ! overload
.. _overload-function:
Function Overloading
====================
A contract can have multiple functions of the same name but with different parameter
types.
This process is called "overloading" and also applies to inherited functions.
The following example shows overloading of the function
``f`` in the scope of contract ``A``.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract A {
function f(uint _in) public pure returns (uint out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(uint _in, bool _really) public pure returns (uint out) {
if (_really)
out = _in;
}
}
Overloaded functions are also present in the external interface. It is an error if two
externally visible functions differ by their Solidity types but not by their external types.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
// This will not compile
contract A {
function f(B _in) public pure returns (B out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(address _in) public pure returns (address out) {
out = _in;
}
}
contract B {
}
Both ``f`` function overloads above end up accepting the address type for the ABI although
they are considered different inside Solidity.
Overload resolution and Argument matching
-----------------------------------------
Overloaded functions are selected by matching the function declarations in the current scope
to the arguments supplied in the function call. Functions are selected as overload candidates
if all arguments can be implicitly converted to the expected types. If there is not exactly one
candidate, resolution fails.
.. note::
Return parameters are not taken into account for overload resolution.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract A {
function f(uint8 _in) public pure returns (uint8 out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(uint256 _in) public pure returns (uint256 out) {
out = _in;
}
}
Calling ``f(50)`` would create a type error since ``50`` can be implicitly converted both to ``uint8``
and ``uint256`` types. On another hand ``f(256)`` would resolve to ``f(uint256)`` overload as ``256`` cannot be implicitly
converted to ``uint8``.
.. include:: contracts/events.rst .. include:: contracts/events.rst

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.. index:: ! functions
.. _functions:
*********
Functions
*********
.. _function-parameters-return-variables:
Function Parameters and Return Variables
========================================
As in JavaScript, functions may take parameters as input. Unlike in JavaScript
and C, functions may also return an arbitrary number of values as output.
Function Parameters
-------------------
Function parameters are declared the same way as variables, and the name of
unused parameters can be omitted.
For example, if you want your contract to accept one kind of external call
with two integers, you would use something like::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
uint sum;
function taker(uint _a, uint _b) public {
sum = _a + _b;
}
}
Function parameters can be used as any other local variable and they can also be assigned to.
.. note::
An :ref:`external function<external-function-calls>` cannot accept a
multi-dimensional array as an input
parameter. This functionality is possible if you enable the new
experimental ``ABIEncoderV2`` feature by adding ``pragma experimental ABIEncoderV2;`` to your source file.
An :ref:`internal function<external-function-calls>` can accept a
multi-dimensional array without enabling the feature.
.. index:: return array, return string, array, string, array of strings, dynamic array, variably sized array, return struct, struct
Return Variables
----------------
Function return variables are declared with the same syntax after the
``returns`` keyword.
For example, suppose you want to return two results: the sum and the product of
two integers passed as function parameters, then you use something like::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
function arithmetic(uint _a, uint _b)
public
pure
returns (uint o_sum, uint o_product)
{
o_sum = _a + _b;
o_product = _a * _b;
}
}
The names of return variables can be omitted.
Return variables can be used as any other local variable and they
are initialized with their :ref:`default value <default-value>` and have that value unless explicitly set.
You can either explicitly assign to return variables and
then leave the function using ``return;``,
or you can provide return values
(either a single or :ref:`multiple ones<multi-return>`) directly with the ``return``
statement::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract Simple {
function arithmetic(uint _a, uint _b)
public
pure
returns (uint o_sum, uint o_product)
{
return (_a + _b, _a * _b);
}
}
This form is equivalent to first assigning values to the
return variables and then using ``return;`` to leave the function.
.. note::
You cannot return some types from non-internal functions, notably
multi-dimensional dynamic arrays and structs. If you enable the
new experimental ``ABIEncoderV2`` feature by adding ``pragma experimental
ABIEncoderV2;`` to your source file then more types are available, but
``mapping`` types are still limited to inside a single contract and you
cannot transfer them.
.. _multi-return:
Returning Multiple Values
-------------------------
When a function has multiple return types, the statement ``return (v0, v1, ..., vn)`` can be used to return multiple values.
The number of components must be the same as the number of return types.
.. index:: ! view function, function;view
.. _view-functions:
View Functions
==============
Functions can be declared ``view`` in which case they promise not to modify the state.
.. note::
If the compiler's EVM target is Byzantium or newer (default) the opcode
``STATICCALL`` is used for ``view`` functions which enforces the state
to stay unmodified as part of the EVM execution. For library ``view`` functions
``DELEGATECALL`` is used, because there is no combined ``DELEGATECALL`` and ``STATICCALL``.
This means library ``view`` functions do not have run-time checks that prevent state
modifications. This should not impact security negatively because library code is
usually known at compile-time and the static checker performs compile-time checks.
The following statements are considered modifying the state:
#. Writing to state variables.
#. :ref:`Emitting events <events>`.
#. :ref:`Creating other contracts <creating-contracts>`.
#. Using ``selfdestruct``.
#. Sending Ether via calls.
#. Calling any function not marked ``view`` or ``pure``.
#. Using low-level calls.
#. Using inline assembly that contains certain opcodes.
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract C {
function f(uint a, uint b) public view returns (uint) {
return a * (b + 42) + now;
}
}
.. note::
``constant`` on functions used to be an alias to ``view``, but this was dropped in version 0.5.0.
.. note::
Getter methods are automatically marked ``view``.
.. note::
Prior to version 0.5.0, the compiler did not use the ``STATICCALL`` opcode
for ``view`` functions.
This enabled state modifications in ``view`` functions through the use of
invalid explicit type conversions.
By using ``STATICCALL`` for ``view`` functions, modifications to the
state are prevented on the level of the EVM.
.. index:: ! pure function, function;pure
.. _pure-functions:
Pure Functions
==============
Functions can be declared ``pure`` in which case they promise not to read from or modify the state.
.. note::
If the compiler's EVM target is Byzantium or newer (default) the opcode ``STATICCALL`` is used,
which does not guarantee that the state is not read, but at least that it is not modified.
In addition to the list of state modifying statements explained above, the following are considered reading from the state:
#. Reading from state variables.
#. Accessing ``address(this).balance`` or ``<address>.balance``.
#. Accessing any of the members of ``block``, ``tx``, ``msg`` (with the exception of ``msg.sig`` and ``msg.data``).
#. Calling any function not marked ``pure``.
#. Using inline assembly that contains certain opcodes.
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract C {
function f(uint a, uint b) public pure returns (uint) {
return a * (b + 42);
}
}
Pure functions are able to use the `revert()` and `require()` functions to revert
potential state changes when an :ref:`error occurs <assert-and-require>`.
Reverting a state change is not considered a "state modification", as only changes to the
state made previously in code that did not have the ``view`` or ``pure`` restriction
are reverted and that code has the option to catch the ``revert`` and not pass it on.
This behaviour is also in line with the ``STATICCALL`` opcode.
.. warning::
It is not possible to prevent functions from reading the state at the level
of the EVM, it is only possible to prevent them from writing to the state
(i.e. only ``view`` can be enforced at the EVM level, ``pure`` can not).
.. note::
Prior to version 0.5.0, the compiler did not use the ``STATICCALL`` opcode
for ``pure`` functions.
This enabled state modifications in ``pure`` functions through the use of
invalid explicit type conversions.
By using ``STATICCALL`` for ``pure`` functions, modifications to the
state are prevented on the level of the EVM.
.. note::
Prior to version 0.4.17 the compiler did not enforce that ``pure`` is not reading the state.
It is a compile-time type check, which can be circumvented doing invalid explicit conversions
between contract types, because the compiler can verify that the type of the contract does
not do state-changing operations, but it cannot check that the contract that will be called
at runtime is actually of that type.
.. index:: ! fallback function, function;fallback
.. _fallback-function:
Fallback Function
=================
A contract can have exactly one unnamed function. This function cannot have
arguments, cannot return anything and has to have ``external`` visibility.
It is executed on a call to the contract if none of the other
functions match the given function identifier (or if no data was supplied at
all).
Furthermore, this function is executed whenever the contract receives plain
Ether (without data). Additionally, in order to receive Ether, the fallback function
must be marked ``payable``. If no such function exists, the contract cannot receive
Ether through regular transactions.
In the worst case, the fallback function can only rely on 2300 gas being
available (for example when `send` or `transfer` is used), leaving little
room to perform other operations except basic logging. The following operations
will consume more gas than the 2300 gas stipend:
- Writing to storage
- Creating a contract
- Calling an external function which consumes a large amount of gas
- Sending Ether
Like any function, the fallback function can execute complex operations as long as there is enough gas passed on to it.
.. note::
Even though the fallback function cannot have arguments, one can still use ``msg.data`` to retrieve
any payload supplied with the call.
.. warning::
The fallback function is also executed if the caller meant to call
a function that is not available. If you want to implement the fallback
function only to receive ether, you should add a check
like ``require(msg.data.length == 0)`` to prevent invalid calls.
.. warning::
Contracts that receive Ether directly (without a function call, i.e. using ``send`` or ``transfer``)
but do not define a fallback function
throw an exception, sending back the Ether (this was different
before Solidity v0.4.0). So if you want your contract to receive Ether,
you have to implement a payable fallback function.
.. warning::
A contract without a payable fallback function can receive Ether as a recipient of a `coinbase transaction` (aka `miner block reward`)
or as a destination of a ``selfdestruct``.
A contract cannot react to such Ether transfers and thus also cannot reject them. This is a design choice of the EVM and Solidity cannot work around it.
It also means that ``address(this).balance`` can be higher than the sum of some manual accounting implemented in a contract (i.e. having a counter updated in the fallback function).
::
pragma solidity ^0.5.0;
contract Test {
// This function is called for all messages sent to
// this contract (there is no other function).
// Sending Ether to this contract will cause an exception,
// because the fallback function does not have the `payable`
// modifier.
function() external { x = 1; }
uint x;
}
// This contract keeps all Ether sent to it with no way
// to get it back.
contract Sink {
function() external payable { }
}
contract Caller {
function callTest(Test test) public returns (bool) {
(bool success,) = address(test).call(abi.encodeWithSignature("nonExistingFunction()"));
require(success);
// results in test.x becoming == 1.
// address(test) will not allow to call ``send`` directly, since ``test`` has no payable
// fallback function. It has to be converted to the ``address payable`` type via an
// intermediate conversion to ``uint160`` to even allow calling ``send`` on it.
address payable testPayable = address(uint160(address(test)));
// If someone sends ether to that contract,
// the transfer will fail, i.e. this returns false here.
return testPayable.send(2 ether);
}
}
.. index:: ! overload
.. _overload-function:
Function Overloading
====================
A contract can have multiple functions of the same name but with different parameter
types.
This process is called "overloading" and also applies to inherited functions.
The following example shows overloading of the function
``f`` in the scope of contract ``A``.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract A {
function f(uint _in) public pure returns (uint out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(uint _in, bool _really) public pure returns (uint out) {
if (_really)
out = _in;
}
}
Overloaded functions are also present in the external interface. It is an error if two
externally visible functions differ by their Solidity types but not by their external types.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
// This will not compile
contract A {
function f(B _in) public pure returns (B out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(address _in) public pure returns (address out) {
out = _in;
}
}
contract B {
}
Both ``f`` function overloads above end up accepting the address type for the ABI although
they are considered different inside Solidity.
Overload resolution and Argument matching
-----------------------------------------
Overloaded functions are selected by matching the function declarations in the current scope
to the arguments supplied in the function call. Functions are selected as overload candidates
if all arguments can be implicitly converted to the expected types. If there is not exactly one
candidate, resolution fails.
.. note::
Return parameters are not taken into account for overload resolution.
::
pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
contract A {
function f(uint8 _in) public pure returns (uint8 out) {
out = _in;
}
function f(uint256 _in) public pure returns (uint256 out) {
out = _in;
}
}
Calling ``f(50)`` would create a type error since ``50`` can be implicitly converted both to ``uint8``
and ``uint256`` types. On another hand ``f(256)`` would resolve to ``f(uint256)`` overload as ``256`` cannot be implicitly
converted to ``uint8``.