## Issue Addressed
Resolves#3069
## Proposed Changes
Unify the `eth1-endpoints` and `execution-endpoints` flags in a backwards compatible way as described in https://github.com/sigp/lighthouse/issues/3069#issuecomment-1134219221
Users have 2 options:
1. Use multiple non auth execution endpoints for deposit processing pre-merge
2. Use a single jwt authenticated execution endpoint for both execution layer and deposit processing post merge
Related https://github.com/sigp/lighthouse/issues/3118
To enable jwt authenticated deposit processing, this PR removes the calls to `net_version` as the `net` namespace is not exposed in the auth server in execution clients.
Moving away from using `networkId` is a good step in my opinion as it doesn't provide us with any added guarantees over `chainId`. See https://github.com/ethereum/consensus-specs/issues/2163 and https://github.com/sigp/lighthouse/issues/2115
Co-authored-by: Paul Hauner <paul@paulhauner.com>
## Proposed Changes
Implement the consensus changes necessary for the upcoming Altair hard fork.
## Additional Info
This is quite a heavy refactor, with pivotal types like the `BeaconState` and `BeaconBlock` changing from structs to enums. This ripples through the whole codebase with field accesses changing to methods, e.g. `state.slot` => `state.slot()`.
Co-authored-by: realbigsean <seananderson33@gmail.com>
## Issue Addressed
#2276
## Proposed Changes
Add the `SensitiveUrl` struct which wraps `Url` and implements custom `Display` and `Debug` traits to redact user secrets from being logged in eth1 endpoints, beacon node endpoints and metrics.
## Additional Info
This also includes a small rewrite of the eth1 crate to make requests using `Url` instead of `&str`.
Some error messages have also been changed to remove `Url` data.
## Issue Addressed
resolves#2129resolves#2099
addresses some of #1712
unblocks #2076
unblocks #2153
## Proposed Changes
- Updates all the dependencies mentioned in #2129, except for web3. They haven't merged their tokio 1.0 update because they are waiting on some dependencies of their own. Since we only use web3 in tests, I think updating it in a separate issue is fine. If they are able to merge soon though, I can update in this PR.
- Updates `tokio_util` to 0.6.2 and `bytes` to 1.0.1.
- We haven't made a discv5 release since merging tokio 1.0 updates so I'm using a commit rather than release atm. **Edit:** I think we should merge an update of `tokio_util` to 0.6.2 into discv5 before this release because it has panic fixes in `DelayQueue` --> PR in discv5: https://github.com/sigp/discv5/pull/58
## Additional Info
tokio 1.0 changes that required some changes in lighthouse:
- `interval.next().await.is_some()` -> `interval.tick().await`
- `sleep` future is now `!Unpin` -> https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio/issues/3028
- `try_recv` has been temporarily removed from `mpsc` -> https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio/issues/3350
- stream features have moved to `tokio-stream` and `broadcast::Receiver::into_stream()` has been temporarily removed -> `https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio/issues/2870
- I've copied over the `BroadcastStream` wrapper from this PR, but can update to use `tokio-stream` once it's merged https://github.com/tokio-rs/tokio/pull/3384
Co-authored-by: realbigsean <seananderson33@gmail.com>
## Issue Addressed
- Resolves#1883
## Proposed Changes
This follows on from @blacktemplar's work in #2018.
- Allows the VC to connect to multiple BN for redundancy.
- Update the simulator so some nodes always need to rely on their fallback.
- Adds some extra deprecation warnings for `--eth1-endpoint`
- Pass `SignatureBytes` as a reference instead of by value.
## Additional Info
NA
Co-authored-by: blacktemplar <blacktemplar@a1.net>
## Issue Addressed
#1992 and #1987, and also to be considered a continuation of #1751
## Proposed Changes
many changed files but most are renaming to align the code with the semantics of `--network`
- remove the `--network` default value (in clap) and instead set it after checking the `network` and `testnet-dir` flags
- move `eth2_testnet_config` crate to `eth2_network_config`
- move `Eth2TestnetConfig` to `Eth2NetworkConfig`
- move `DEFAULT_HARDCODED_TESTNET` to `DEFAULT_HARDCODED_NETWORK`
- `beacon_node`s `get_eth2_testnet_config` loads the `DEFAULT_HARDCODED_NETWORK` if there is no network nor testnet provided
- `boot_node`s config loads the config same as the `beacon_node`, it was using the configuration only for preconfigured networks (That code is ~1year old so I asume it was not intended)
- removed a one year old comment stating we should try to emulate `https://github.com/eth2-clients/eth2-testnets/tree/master/nimbus/testnet1` it looks outdated (?)
- remove `lighthouse`s `load_testnet_config` in favor of `get_eth2_network_config` to centralize that logic (It had differences)
- some spelling
## Additional Info
Both the command of #1992 and the scripts of #1987 seem to work fine, same as `bn` and `vc`
## Description
This PR updates Lighthouse to tokio 0.3. It includes a number of dependency updates and some structural changes as to how we create and spawn tasks.
This also brings with it a number of various improvements:
- Discv5 update
- Libp2p update
- Fix for recompilation issues
- Improved UPnP port mapping handling
- Futures dependency update
- Log downgrade to traces for rejecting peers when we've reached our max
Co-authored-by: blacktemplar <blacktemplar@a1.net>
## Issue Addressed
part of #1883
## Proposed Changes
Adds a new cli argument `--eth1-endpoints` that can be used instead of `--eth1-endpoint` to specify a comma-separated list of endpoints. If the first endpoint returns an error for some request the other endpoints are tried in the given order.
## Additional Info
Currently if the first endpoint fails the fallbacks are used silently (except for `try_fallback_test_endpoint` that is used in `do_update` which logs a `WARN` for each endpoint that is not reachable). A question is if we should add more logs so that the user gets warned if his main endpoint is for example just slow and sometimes hits timeouts.
## Issue Addressed
Closes#1504Closes#1505
Replaces #1703Closes#1707
## Proposed Changes
* Update BLST and Milagro to versions compatible with BLSv4 spec
* Update Lighthouse to spec v1.0.0-rc.0, and update EF test vectors
* Use the v1.0.0 constants for `MainnetEthSpec`.
* Rename `InteropEthSpec` -> `V012LegacyEthSpec`
* Change all constants to suit the mainnet `v0.12.3` specification (i.e., Medalla).
* Deprecate the `--spec` flag for the `lighthouse` binary
* This value is now obtained from the `config_name` field of the `YamlConfig`.
* Built in testnet YAML files have been updated.
* Ignore the `--spec` value, if supplied, log a warning that it will be deprecated
* `lcli` still has the spec flag, that's fine because it's dev tooling.
* Remove the `E: EthSpec` from `YamlConfig`
* This means we need to deser the genesis `BeaconState` on-demand, but this is fine.
* Swap the old "minimal", "mainnet" strings over to the new `EthSpecId` enum.
* Always require a `CONFIG_NAME` field in `YamlConfig` (it used to have a default).
## Additional Info
Lots of breaking changes, do not merge! ~~We will likely need a Lighthouse v0.4.0 branch, and possibly a long-term v0.3.0 branch to keep Medalla alive~~.
Co-authored-by: Kirk Baird <baird.k@outlook.com>
Co-authored-by: Paul Hauner <paul@paulhauner.com>
Closes#1487Closes#1427
Directory restructure in accordance with #1487. Also has temporary migration code to move the old directories into new structure.
Also extracts all default directory names and utility functions into a `directory` crate to avoid repetitio.
~Since `validator_definition.yaml` stores absolute paths, users will have to manually change the keystore paths or delete the file to get the validators picked up by the vc.~. `validator_definition.yaml` is migrated as well from the default directories.
Co-authored-by: realbigsean <seananderson33@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Paul Hauner <paul@paulhauner.com>
* Bake in Altona testnet (without genesis state)
* Add sig verification, without optimization
* Start integration with genesis service
* Update config.yml
* Fix eth2_testnet_config test
* Stop using default spec in genesis
* Fix lcli compile error
* Update min genesis time
* Fix typo
* Add logging on shutdown
* Replace tokio::spawn with handle.spawn
* Upgrade tokio
* Add a task executor
* Beacon chain tasks use task executor
* Validator client tasks use task executor
* Rename runtime_handle to executor
* Add duration histograms; minor fixes
* Cleanup
* Fix logs
* Fix tests
* Remove random file
* Get enr dependency instead of libp2p
* Address some review comments
* Libp2p takes a TaskExecutor
* Ugly fix libp2p tests
* Move TaskExecutor to own file
* Upgrade Dockerfile rust version
* Minor fixes
* Revert "Ugly fix libp2p tests"
This reverts commit 58d4bb690f52de28d893943b7504d2d0c6621429.
* Pretty fix libp2p tests
* Add spawn_without_exit; change Counter to Gauge
* Tidy
* Move log from RuntimeContext to TaskExecutor
* Fix errors
* Replace histogram with int_gauge for async tasks
* Fix todo
* Fix memory leak in test by exiting all spawned tasks at the end
* Port eth1 lib to use stable futures
* Port eth1_test_rig to stable futures
* Port eth1 tests to stable futures
* Port genesis service to stable futures
* Port genesis tests to stable futures
* Port beacon_chain to stable futures
* Port lcli to stable futures
* Fix eth1_test_rig (#1014)
* Fix lcli
* Port timer to stable futures
* Fix timer
* Port websocket_server to stable futures
* Port notifier to stable futures
* Add TODOS
* Update hashmap hashset to stable futures
* Adds panic test to hashset delay
* Port remote_beacon_node to stable futures
* Fix lcli merge conflicts
* Non rpc stuff compiles
* protocol.rs compiles
* Port websockets, timer and notifier to stable futures (#1035)
* Fix lcli
* Port timer to stable futures
* Fix timer
* Port websocket_server to stable futures
* Port notifier to stable futures
* Add TODOS
* Port remote_beacon_node to stable futures
* Partial eth2-libp2p stable future upgrade
* Finished first round of fighting RPC types
* Further progress towards porting eth2-libp2p adds caching to discovery
* Update behaviour
* RPC handler to stable futures
* Update RPC to master libp2p
* Network service additions
* Fix the fallback transport construction (#1102)
* Correct warning
* Remove hashmap delay
* Compiling version of eth2-libp2p
* Update all crates versions
* Fix conversion function and add tests (#1113)
* Port validator_client to stable futures (#1114)
* Add PH & MS slot clock changes
* Account for genesis time
* Add progress on duties refactor
* Add simple is_aggregator bool to val subscription
* Start work on attestation_verification.rs
* Add progress on ObservedAttestations
* Progress with ObservedAttestations
* Fix tests
* Add observed attestations to the beacon chain
* Add attestation observation to processing code
* Add progress on attestation verification
* Add first draft of ObservedAttesters
* Add more tests
* Add observed attesters to beacon chain
* Add observers to attestation processing
* Add more attestation verification
* Create ObservedAggregators map
* Remove commented-out code
* Add observed aggregators into chain
* Add progress
* Finish adding features to attestation verification
* Ensure beacon chain compiles
* Link attn verification into chain
* Integrate new attn verification in chain
* Remove old attestation processing code
* Start trying to fix beacon_chain tests
* Split adding into pools into two functions
* Add aggregation to harness
* Get test harness working again
* Adjust the number of aggregators for test harness
* Fix edge-case in harness
* Integrate new attn processing in network
* Fix compile bug in validator_client
* Update validator API endpoints
* Fix aggreagation in test harness
* Fix enum thing
* Fix attestation observation bug:
* Patch failing API tests
* Start adding comments to attestation verification
* Remove unused attestation field
* Unify "is block known" logic
* Update comments
* Supress fork choice errors for network processing
* Add todos
* Tidy
* Add gossip attn tests
* Disallow test harness to produce old attns
* Comment out in-progress tests
* Partially address pruning tests
* Fix failing store test
* Add aggregate tests
* Add comments about which spec conditions we check
* Dont re-aggregate
* Split apart test harness attn production
* Fix compile error in network
* Make progress on commented-out test
* Fix skipping attestation test
* Add fork choice verification tests
* Tidy attn tests, remove dead code
* Remove some accidentally added code
* Fix clippy lint
* Rename test file
* Add block tests, add cheap block proposer check
* Rename block testing file
* Add observed_block_producers
* Tidy
* Switch around block signature verification
* Finish block testing
* Remove gossip from signature tests
* First pass of self review
* Fix deviation in spec
* Update test spec tags
* Start moving over to hashset
* Finish moving observed attesters to hashmap
* Move aggregation pool over to hashmap
* Make fc attn borrow again
* Fix rest_api compile error
* Fix missing comments
* Fix monster test
* Uncomment increasing slots test
* Address remaining comments
* Remove unsafe, use cfg test
* Remove cfg test flag
* Fix dodgy comment
* Revert "Update hashmap hashset to stable futures"
This reverts commit d432378a3cc5cd67fc29c0b15b96b886c1323554.
* Revert "Adds panic test to hashset delay"
This reverts commit 281502396fc5b90d9c421a309c2c056982c9525b.
* Ported attestation_service
* Ported duties_service
* Ported fork_service
* More ports
* Port block_service
* Minor fixes
* VC compiles
* Update TODOS
* Borrow self where possible
* Ignore aggregates that are already known.
* Unify aggregator modulo logic
* Fix typo in logs
* Refactor validator subscription logic
* Avoid reproducing selection proof
* Skip HTTP call if no subscriptions
* Rename DutyAndState -> DutyAndProof
* Tidy logs
* Print root as dbg
* Fix compile errors in tests
* Fix compile error in test
* Re-Fix attestation and duties service
* Minor fixes
Co-authored-by: Paul Hauner <paul@paulhauner.com>
* Network crate update to stable futures
* Port account_manager to stable futures (#1121)
* Port account_manager to stable futures
* Run async fns in tokio environment
* Port rest_api crate to stable futures (#1118)
* Port rest_api lib to stable futures
* Reduce tokio features
* Update notifier to stable futures
* Builder update
* Further updates
* Convert self referential async functions
* stable futures fixes (#1124)
* Fix eth1 update functions
* Fix genesis and client
* Fix beacon node lib
* Return appropriate runtimes from environment
* Fix test rig
* Refactor eth1 service update
* Upgrade simulator to stable futures
* Lighthouse compiles on stable futures
* Remove println debugging statement
* Update libp2p service, start rpc test upgrade
* Update network crate for new libp2p
* Update tokio::codec to futures_codec (#1128)
* Further work towards RPC corrections
* Correct http timeout and network service select
* Use tokio runtime for libp2p
* Revert "Update tokio::codec to futures_codec (#1128)"
This reverts commit e57aea924acf5cbabdcea18895ac07e38a425ed7.
* Upgrade RPC libp2p tests
* Upgrade secio fallback test
* Upgrade gossipsub examples
* Clean up RPC protocol
* Test fixes (#1133)
* Correct websocket timeout and run on os thread
* Fix network test
* Clean up PR
* Correct tokio tcp move attestation service tests
* Upgrade attestation service tests
* Correct network test
* Correct genesis test
* Test corrections
* Log info when block is received
* Modify logs and update attester service events
* Stable futures: fixes to vc, eth1 and account manager (#1142)
* Add local testnet scripts
* Remove whiteblock script
* Rename local testnet script
* Move spawns onto handle
* Fix VC panic
* Initial fix to block production issue
* Tidy block producer fix
* Tidy further
* Add local testnet clean script
* Run cargo fmt
* Tidy duties service
* Tidy fork service
* Tidy ForkService
* Tidy AttestationService
* Tidy notifier
* Ensure await is not suppressed in eth1
* Ensure await is not suppressed in account_manager
* Use .ok() instead of .unwrap_or(())
* RPC decoding test for proto
* Update discv5 and eth2-libp2p deps
* Fix lcli double runtime issue (#1144)
* Handle stream termination and dialing peer errors
* Correct peer_info variant types
* Remove unnecessary warnings
* Handle subnet unsubscription removal and improve logigng
* Add logs around ping
* Upgrade discv5 and improve logging
* Handle peer connection status for multiple connections
* Improve network service logging
* Improve logging around peer manager
* Upgrade swarm poll centralise peer management
* Identify clients on error
* Fix `remove_peer` in sync (#1150)
* remove_peer removes from all chains
* Remove logs
* Fix early return from loop
* Improved logging, fix panic
* Partially correct tests
* Stable futures: Vc sync (#1149)
* Improve syncing heuristic
* Add comments
* Use safer method for tolerance
* Fix tests
* Stable futures: Fix VC bug, update agg pool, add more metrics (#1151)
* Expose epoch processing summary
* Expose participation metrics to prometheus
* Switch to f64
* Reduce precision
* Change precision
* Expose observed attesters metrics
* Add metrics for agg/unagg attn counts
* Add metrics for gossip rx
* Add metrics for gossip tx
* Adds ignored attns to prom
* Add attestation timing
* Add timer for aggregation pool sig agg
* Add write lock timer for agg pool
* Add more metrics to agg pool
* Change map lock code
* Add extra metric to agg pool
* Change lock handling in agg pool
* Change .write() to .read()
* Add another agg pool timer
* Fix for is_aggregator
* Fix pruning bug
Co-authored-by: pawan <pawandhananjay@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Paul Hauner <paul@paulhauner.com>
* Start updating types
* WIP
* Signature hacking
* Existing EF tests passing with fake_crypto
* Updates
* Delete outdated API spec
* The refactor continues
* It compiles
* WIP test fixes
* All release tests passing bar genesis state parsing
* Update and test YamlConfig
* Update to spec v0.10 compatible BLS
* Updates to BLS EF tests
* Add EF test for AggregateVerify
And delete unused hash2curve tests for uncompressed points
* Update EF tests to v0.10.1
* Use optional block root correctly in block proc
* Use genesis fork in deposit domain. All tests pass
* Cargo fmt
* Fast aggregate verify test
* Update REST API docs
* Cargo fmt
* Fix unused import
* Bump spec tags to v0.10.1
* Add `seconds_per_eth1_block` to chainspec
* Update to timestamp based eth1 voting scheme
* Return None from `get_votes_to_consider` if block cache is empty
* Handle overflows in `is_candidate_block`
* Revert to failing tests
* Fix eth1 data sets test
* Choose default vote according to spec
* Fix collect_valid_votes tests
* Fix `get_votes_to_consider` to choose all eligible blocks
* Uncomment winning_vote tests
* Add comments; remove unused code
* Reduce seconds_per_eth1_block for simulation
* Addressed review comments
* Add test for default vote case
* Fix logs
* Remove unused functions
* Meter default eth1 votes
* Fix comments
* Address review comments; remove unused dependency
* Disable/delete two outdated tests
* Bump eth1 default vote warn to error
* Delete outdated eth1 test
Co-authored-by: Pawan Dhananjay <pawandhananjay@gmail.com>
* Update to spec v0.9.0
* Update to v0.9.1
* Bump spec tags for v0.9.1
* Formatting, fix CI failures
* Resolve accidental KeyPair merge conflict
* Document new BeaconState functions
* Add `validator` changes from `validator-to-rest`
* Add initial (failing) REST api tests
* Fix signature parsing
* Add more tests
* Refactor http router
* Add working tests for publish beacon block
* Add validator duties tests
* Move account_manager under `lighthouse` binary
* Unify logfile handling in `environment` crate.
* Fix incorrect cache drops in `advance_caches`
* Update fork choice for v0.9.1
* Add `deposit_contract` crate
* Add progress on validator onboarding
* Add unfinished attesation code
* Update account manager CLI
* Write eth1 data file as hex string
* Integrate ValidatorDirectory with validator_client
* Move ValidatorDirectory into validator_client
* Clean up some FIXMEs
* Add beacon_chain_sim
* Fix a few docs/logs
* Expand `beacon_chain_sim`
* Fix spec for `beacon_chain_sim
* More testing for api
* Start work on attestation endpoint
* Reject empty attestations
* Allow attestations to genesis block
* Add working tests for `rest_api` validator endpoint
* Remove grpc from beacon_node
* Start heavy refactor of validator client
- Block production is working
* Prune old validator client files
* Start works on attestation service
* Add attestation service to validator client
* Use full pubkey for validator directories
* Add validator duties post endpoint
* Use par_iter for keypair generation
* Use bulk duties request in validator client
* Add version http endpoint tests
* Add interop keys and startup wait
* Ensure a prompt exit
* Add duties pruning
* Fix compile error in beacon node tests
* Add github workflow
* Modify rust.yaml
* Modify gitlab actions
* Add to CI file
* Add sudo to CI npm install
* Move cargo fmt to own job in tests
* Fix cargo fmt in CI
* Add rustup update before cargo fmt
* Change name of CI job
* Make other CI jobs require cargo fmt
* Add CI badge
* Remove gitlab and travis files
* Add different http timeout for debug
* Update docker file, use makefile in CI
* Use make in the dockerfile, skip the test
* Use the makefile for debug GI test
* Update book
* Tidy grpc and misc things
* Apply discv5 fixes
* Address other minor issues
* Fix warnings
* Attempt fix for addr parsing
* Tidy validator config, CLIs
* Tidy comments
* Tidy signing, reduce ForkService duplication
* Fail if skipping too many slots
* Set default recent genesis time to 0
* Add custom http timeout to validator
* Fix compile bug in node_test_rig
* Remove old bootstrap flag from val CLI
* Update docs
* Tidy val client
* Change val client log levels
* Add comments, more validity checks
* Fix compile error, add comments
* Undo changes to eth2-libp2p/src
* Reduce duplication of keypair generation
* Add more logging for validator duties
* Fix beacon_chain_sim, nitpicks
* Fix compile error, minor nits
* Update to use v0.9.2 version of deposit contract
* Add efforts to automate eth1 testnet deployment
* Fix lcli testnet deployer
* Modify bn CLI to parse eth2_testnet_dir
* Progress with account_manager deposit tools
* Make account manager submit deposits
* Add password option for submitting deposits
* Allow custom deposit amount
* Add long names to lcli clap
* Add password option to lcli deploy command
* Fix minor bugs whilst testing
* Address Michael's comments
* Add refund-deposit-contract to lcli
* Use time instead of skip count for denying long skips
* Improve logging for eth1
* Fix bug with validator services exiting on error
* Drop the block cache after genesis
* Modify eth1 testnet config
* Improve eth1 logging
* Make validator wait until genesis time
* Fix bug in eth1 voting
* Add more logging to eth1 voting
* Handle errors in eth1 http module
* Set SECONDS_PER_DAY to sensible minimum
* Shorten delay before testnet start
* Ensure eth1 block is produced without any votes
* Improve eth1 logging
* Fix broken tests in eth1
* Tidy code in rest_api
* Fix failing test in deposit_contract
* Make CLI args more consistent
* Change validator/duties endpoint
* Add time-based skip slot limiting
* Add new error type missed in previous commit
* Add log when waiting for genesis
* Refactor beacon node CLI
* Remove unused dep
* Add lcli eth1-genesis command
* Fix bug in master merge
* Apply clippy lints to beacon node
* Add support for YamlConfig in Eth2TestnetDir
* Upgrade tesnet deposit contract version
* Remove unnecessary logging and correct formatting
* Add a hardcoded eth2 testnet config
* Ensure http server flag works. Overwrite configs with flags.
* Ensure boot nodes are loaded from testnet dir
* Fix account manager CLI bugs
* Fix bugs with beacon node cli
* Allow testnet dir without boot nodes
* Write genesis state as SSZ
* Remove ---/n from the start of testnet_dir files
* Set default libp2p address
* Tidy account manager CLI, add logging
* Add check to see if testnet dir exists
* Apply reviewers suggestions
* Add HeadTracker struct
* Add fork choice persistence
* Shorten slot time for simulator
* Add the /beacon/heads API endpoint
* Update hardcoded testnet
* Add tests for BeaconChain persistence + fix bugs
* Extend BeaconChain persistence testing
* Ensure chain is finalized b4 persistence tests
* Ensure boot_enr.yaml is include in binary
* Refactor beacon_chain_sim
* Move files about in beacon sim
* Update beacon_chain_sim
* Fix bug with deposit inclusion
* Increase log in genesis service, fix todo
* Tidy sim, fix broken rest_api tests
* Fix more broken tests
* Update testnet
* Fix broken rest api test
* Tidy account manager CLI
* Use tempdir for account manager
* Stop hardcoded testnet dir from creating dir
* Rename Eth2TestnetDir to Eth2TestnetConfig
* Change hardcoded -> hard_coded
* Tidy account manager
* Add log to account manager
* Tidy, ensure head tracker is loaded from disk
* Tidy beacon chain builder
* Tidy eth1_chain
* Adds log support for simulator
* Revert "Adds log support for simulator"
This reverts commit ec77c66a052350f551db145cf20f213823428dd3.
* Adds log support for simulator
* Tidy after self-review
* Change default log level
* Address Michael's delicious PR comments
* Fix off-by-one in tests
